COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

TOOLS FOR COLLECTION OF DATA

ACHIEVEMENT TEST:

   Achievement tests are the most frequently used evaluation tools in the educational setting belonging to the paper and pencil category.

    The term achievement refers to the acquisition of all the behavioural changes belonging to the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.

  *   It is an instrument designed to measure relative accomplishment in the specified areas of learning.

*   Ebel defines” Achievement test is one designed to measure students group of somebody of knowledge or is proficiency in certain skills.

 *   Freeeman defines test of Educational achievement as “designed to measure knowledge, understanding, and skills in a specified subject or group of subject”.

            Achievement tests measure an individual’s present level of performance. Most tests used in schools are achievement tests. They are particularly helpful in determining individual or group status in academic learning. Achievement test scores are used in placing, advancing, or retaining students’ at particular grade levels. They are used in diagnosing strengths and weaknesses and as a basis for awarding prizes, scholarships, or degrees.

     Achievement tests scores are used in evaluating the influences of study courses, teachers, teaching methods, and other factors considered to be significant in educational practice. For using achievement tests for evaluative purposes, it is important not to generalize beyond the specific elements measured. For example, to identify effective teaching exclusively with the limited products measured by the ordinary achievement test would be to define effective teaching too narrowly. It is essential that researchers recognize that the elements of a situation under appraisal need to be evaluated on the basis of a number of criteria, not merely on a few limited aspects.

     Achievement test is an important tool in school evaluation and has great significance in measuring instructional progress and progress of the students in the subject area.

     Achievement test means one’s learning attainment, accomplishments, proficiencies, etc. It is directly related to the pupil’s growth and development in educational situations.

     Test should give accurate picture of students’ knowledge and skills in the subject area or domain being tested. Accurate achievement data are very important for planning curriculum and instruction and for programme evaluation. Test scores that overestimate or underestimate students’ actual knowledge and skills cannot serve these important purposes.

Definition:

·         “Any test that measures the attainments and accomplishments of an individual after a period of training or learning”. -----N.M.Downie.

·         “A type of ability test that describes what a person has learned to do”. ---Thorndike and Hagen.

·         “A systematic procedure for determining the amount a student has learned through instructions”. ----Groulund                                                                                                                                                        

Objectives of Achievement test:

1.       Identify and explain reasons for performing tests.

2.       Understand testing terminology to communicate clearly with students and colleagues.

3.       Evaluate a test’s validity and reliability.

4.       Select appropriate tests.

5.       Select appropriate tests.

6.       Administer test protocols properly and safely.

Functions of test:

1. It provides basis for promotion to the next grade.
2. To find out where each student stands in various academic areas.
3. It helps in determination about the placement of the students in a particular section.
4. To motivate the students before a new assignment has taken up.
5. To know effectively the student is performing in theory as well as in clinical areas.
6. To expose pupil’s difficulties which he teacher can help them to solve.

Characteristics of a good test:

      Test preparation activities which promote quality, long term learning are appropriate, even essential. Good test-taking skills and appropriate content learning can reduce the likelihood that extraneous factors will influence students’ test scores. The various characteristics of a good test are,

1. It can be tried out and selected on the basis of its difficulty level and discriminating power.
2. Directly related to the educational objectives.
3. It should possess description of measure behaviour in realistic and practical terms.
4. Contains a sufficient number of test items for each measured behaviour, concerned with important and useful matter; comprehensive, brief, precise and clear.
5. It should be divided into different know.ledge and skills according to behaviour to be measures.
6. Standardized the items and made instructions clear so that different users can utilize it.
7. Rules and norms have to be developed so that various age groups can use at various levels.
8. It provides equivalent and comparable forms of the test.
9. A test manual has to be prepared, which can act as a guide for administering and scoring.

Advantages of Standardized testing:

1. A practical solution:  First off most of the standardized test are in multiple choice format. In other words they are not complicated enough to explain and any student-no matter what level-can understand that they have to tick one of the boxes as their answer. Also given that tests are easy to implement. They save a lot of time too. Not a lot of time is wasted on giving explanations for why certain sections should be done like this and so. The instructions are fairly simple. Chose the answer to the question based on the suggestions below
2. Results are quantifiable:  When educators are able to quantify the achievement of students they are able to identify proficiency levels. As such they can easily identify the students who need remediation or advancement.
3. Scoring automation: With so many students at different grade levels taking the exam, it’s difficult for educators to get through them all. Now, that problem has been simplified through computerized testing- and even scoring.
4. Not biased: Since a computer handles the grading and all there is no possible influence of a teacher on the exams in the part a teacher can make up their mind about a student’s skills based solely on their biased towards the child. But with computers, those powers are stripped from them and students can now be judged on what they have put on paper- not extreme factors involved.
5. Allows for comparison: Educators can compare the results of examinations within the school or even compare it to other schools.  Through this, teacher can assess which areas they need to improve on for the students. For example, students from their school may have scored lower in mathematics compared to a rival school. From there, teachers can focus on improving the mathematics curriculum so students will score better next time.
6. Traces student progress: Standardized tests are taken at certain levels and over that time, educators can see the progress students have made. They either go into decline or improve tremendously. But whichever the case teachers now have an idea how best they would respond to a child’s educational needs.

Disadvantages of Standardized testing:

1. Questions are general in nature: Tests do not really assess skill as the questions have to be generalized for the entire population in short, the test items are not in conjunction with classroom skills and behaviour. What standardized tests do is assess the general knowledge and understanding of students rather than their actual ability.
2. Questions are sometimes ridiculous: Sometimes the questions asked in the test may be ridiculous not able to comprehend.
3. Results doesn’t allow educators to update their instruction methods: The questions on the test are general in nature and it’s hard for teachers to know how to improve students understanding of a particular topic based on general information alone. What this does though is allowing teachers to teach to the test rather than educate students properly based on the needs of the classroom.
4. Scores are influenced by external factors like fatigue:  Students study hard for these exams. They study so hard that there are even instructions on what teachers should do if a student vomits on their test booklets. Students feel pressured taking these exams and sometimes their final scores are reflective not of their ability but of being influenced by other factors instead.

                                            DIAGNOSTIC TEST IN EDUCATION

       The purpose of a diagnostic test in education is to assess the current state of a student's progress or ability in a particular area. Some diagnostic tests determine if a student qualifies for special education services on the basis of everything from dyslexia to speech delays or even attention deficit disorder while others indicate specific competencies on the scope and sequence for a course in which students have either demonstrated mastery or need remediation.

Diagnostic tests measure students' understanding of a subject area or skills base. Teachers typically administer diagnostics for reading and math skills, using the results to provide remedial instruction or place students within appropriately leveled classes. Many content teachers, though, give formative assessments to gauge what knowledge students bring to class. Some schools also diagnose concepts as a whole, aiming to reveal commonly held misconceptions in specific subjects.

     Diagnostic test is a test used to diagnose or to reveal an individual’s weakness and strengths in a certain area of study. Diagnostic tests are designed to analyse the individual performance and provide information on the causes of difficulty.

     The term diagnose is borrowed from the medical profession where it implies identification of disease by means of patients symptoms. Here the patient is extensively observed under controlled conditions. The word diagnosis is used more or less in the same sense in the field of education. Only difference is that in medical diagnoses it is a physical breakdown i.e. investigated, while in individual diagnosis it is the failure of the process of education or learning i.e. located and attempted to remedial, i.e. educational diagnosis is the determination of the nature of learning difficulties and deficiencies, but it can’t stop only at the identification of weakness in learning but has to go a little deeper to locate their causes and also suggest remedies to get rid of them.

     A diagnostic test is a test designed to locate specific learning deficiencies in case of ‘specific individuals’ at a specific stage of learning so that ‘specific efforts’ could be made to overcome those deficiencies. It helps the teacher in identifying the status of the learner at the end of a particular lesson, unit or course o learning as to what ‘specific teaching or learning points’ have been poorly grasped by the learner. In such deficiency is located in several students, it becomes obvious to the teacher to reflect upon whether something went wrong with his method of teaching. It is also possible that the entire group of students suffering from that particular learning difficulty might not have the basic knowledge required for benefiting from further learning. After administering a diagnostic test or a battery of diagnostic tests to students, a teacher takes a remedial measure to overcome the deficiencies thus discovered.

CHARACTERISTICS OF AN EFFECTIVE DIAGNOSTIC TEST:

1.       It should be an integral part of the curriculum, emphasizing and clarifying the important objectives.

2.       It s test items should require responses to be made to situations approximating as closely as possible to be functional.

3.       It must be based on experimental evidence of learning difficulties.

4.       It should reveal the mental processes of the learner sufficiently to detect points of error.

5.       It should suggest or provide specific remedial procedures for each error detected.

6.       It should be designed to cover a long sequence of learning systematically.

7.       It should be designed to check forgetting by constant review of difficult elements as well as to detect faulty learning.

8.       It should reveal pupil progress in objective terms.

CONSTRUCTION (PROCES) OF DIAGNOSTIC TESTS:

     Diagnostic tests may also be standardized but teacher made diagnostic tests will largely be more economical and effective than standardized tests. The norms, which constitute a strong point with standardized tests, are not called for in diagnosis, as the purpose there is to discover the weakness of individual students rather than compare their achievements. The preparation of diagnostic tests requires as special technique different from other tests. Nevertheless, the stages of preparation will be-planning, writing items, assembling tests, providing directions and preparing the scoring key, marking scheme and reviewing the test. All forms of questions can employed for testing different learning points. As we want to collect evidences in all the points, it is desirable to use either short answer or objective type question.

STEPS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF A DIAGNOSTIC TEST:

The steps involved in the construction of a diagnostic test are as follows;-

1.       Identifying learning deficiencies.

2.       Analysing errors.

3.       Analysing content.

4.       Identifying learning points to be covered emerging from above.

5.       Developing test formats and their try-out.

6.       Selecting items for inclusion in the test.

7.       Assembling the test.

    No rigid time need be specified in the case of diagnostic tests. Diagnosis should be individualized as much as possible and every students should be allowed, as much time as reasonable needed. As we do not have to relate content and processes, the preparation of blue-print may altogether be avoided in case of diagnostic tests. Somewhere the number of questions to be asked on different elements of the content may be noted.

     Writing items for diagnostic tests is not in any way different from writing items for general achievement test. The questions have to be specifically related to the learning points should be designed as to throw light on the weakness of students. The scope of answer of the level of precision expected should also be made clear.

     After the items of different learning points are written and have to be assembled into a test form. The basis of arranging questions in a diagnostic test is entirely different from that of other tests. There appear to be a good deal of justification in favour of clubbing questions around learning points. The learning points themselves can be arranged in order of their complexity. It they are arranged sequencially, more over these arrangements also help in analyzing the responses of students with a view to identify their weakness; which is one of the important tasks in diagnostic tests.

Reading

Diagnostic tests for reading provide specific information about reading skills. Children take the test individually or in groups; some reading diagnostics are computer based while others require interaction with a test proctor. Such tests are designed to pinpoint at what grade level children are reading based on their mastery of phonics, blending, word recognition and text comprehension. Ideally, a child entering a grade should display reading skills typical of that grade, meaning a fifth grader isn't using sound-out techniques like a first grader. When teachers discover students are reading below grade level, they typically implement interventions designed to bolster the missing skills.

Math

Diagnostic testing in mathematics typically provides a level for the child's mathematical skills -- in this case not just related to grade level but also math topic. Schools often use such diagnostic testing to place students in appropriate math classes, for instance, by determining if they have the prerequisite skills necessary for a higher-level class such as calculus or trigonometry. However, educators use math diagnostics to boost student achievement by encouraging high achievers and offering remedial instruction, including summer school programs, to those who are struggling.

Meaning: A diagnostic test has been defined as “one designed to locate the particular source of a person’s difficulties in learning especially in school subjects”.

Importance:

1.         It provides the feed-back to the teacher as well as to the students regarding their strength and weaknesses.

2.        It helps teachers to modify their teaching learning strategies. So as to make them more effective in the light of the feedback.

3.        Diagnostic test is an integral part of overall evaluation.

4.       Hypothesizing the probable cause for these weakness and difficulties.

5.       Applying the remedial teaching for removing these weaknesses and difficulties.

Uses of diagnostic test:

1.       Diagnostic test serves guides to the attainment of the students.

2.       Diagnostic test help in isolating difficulties of students individually.

3.       Diagnostic test help to group students for remedial or special coaching.

4.       Diagnostic test serve as guide to locate the attainments of difficulties of the students.

5.       Point out inadequacies in specific skills.

6.       Locate areas in which individual instruction is required.

7.       Serve as a basis for improving instructional methods, instructional materials and learning procedures.

8.       It is very helpful for identifying weakness of the students.

9.       It is more scientific.

10.       It is used for finding fit falls.

QUESTIONNAIRE/INVENTORIES

        A questionnaire is a list of planned written questions related to a particular topic or series of topics. Space is provided for the reply to each question.

          In Structured (closed-end) type of questionnaire, the answers are checked are underlined by the respondent. In the unstructured (open-end) type, the respondent is allowed to make free responses to the questions. The inventory comes under the first type.

         A questionnaire is used where factual information from the respondents is desired. It consists of a form containing a series of questions where the respondents themselves fill in the answers. Barr, Davi and Johnson defines a questionnaire as, “A questionnaire is a systematic computation of questions that are submitted to a sampling of population form which information is desired.”

     According to G.A.Langberg, “Fundamentally, the questionnaire is a set of stimuli to which literate people are exposed in order to observe their verbal behaviour under these stimuli”.

       Good and Hatt opine, “In general, the word questionnaire refers to a device for securing answers to questions by using a form which the respondent fills-in himself.

     A questionnaire must be distinguished from a “schedule”, an ”opinionnaire”, and an “interview-guide”. A Schedule consists of a form containing a series of questions, which are asked and filled in by the investigator in a face to face situation. An opinionnaire is an information form which attempts to measure the attitude or belief of an individual. Hence, opinionnaire is also called as an attitude scale. When factual information is desired, a questionnaire is used but when opinions rather than facts are desired opinionnaire or attitude scale is used. An interview-guide consists of a list of basic points or topics to be covered by the interview during the interview.

      A questionnaire is usually administered personally to groups of individuals. When several persons are available at the same time and place, a questionnaire proves to be very economical tool of data collection. A Questionnaire also enables researchers to get firsthand information regarding the vagueness of items, if any, as well as it gives them an opportunity to establish a warm relationship with the persons being tested.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE

A good questionnaire must have certain characteristics. A questionnaire must be:

1. Specific: The questionnaire should be concerned with specific topics, which must be regarded as relevant by the respondents. The investigator musts clearly state the significance, objectives and aims of the questionnaire either in a separate letter or in the questionnaire itself.
2. Short: It should be short because very lengthy questionnaires often find their way into the waste-basket.
3. Simple and Clear: Directions and wordings of the questionnaire should be simple and clear. Each question should deal with a single idea.
4. Objective: The questions should be objective and should not provide any hints or suggestions regarding a possible answer. Embarrassing questions, presuming questions and hypothetical questions should avoided.
5. Presented in a good order: The questions should be presented in a good order proceeding from general to specific responses or from those showing a favorable attitude to an unfavorable attitude.
6. Attractive: A questionnaire must be attractive in appearance, neatly printed or duplicated and clearly arranged.
7. Arranged properly: In a questionnaire, the order of the individual questions is of great importance because the order tends to influence the validity of the obtained answers as well as the refusal rates. In the beginning the respondent is unsure of himself as well as curious. So, the opening questions should be simple, general, and such as to put the respondent at ease. This has a natural effect of establishing rapport between the investigator and the respondent. No sensitive questions or embarrassing question should be put in the beginning because it is likely to lead to refusal to answer. The questions should move from the general to specific aspect in a logical manner. No break should be given in moving from general to specific questions.

Drafting the questions (Some rules)

1. Keeping it brief means not having more than 15-20 questions.
2. Overall research questions should guide in selecting the questions.
3. Don’t just ask questions simply out of general interest.
4. Keep the language simple and consider who will be responding.
5. Keep questions short with no embedded questions.
6. Ensure that questions are clear and unambiguous.
7. The researcher should ask questions that he feels sure the respondents will be able to answer.
8. Avoid asking leading questions.
9. Make sure categories of response make sense.

Types of Questions

1. Open type questions 2. Closed type

Question Order:

          Start with easy questions first (e.g. Male/female) and make sure that any questions that are more controversial appear later when the respondent has already invested the time in the questionnaire. It is often useful to end with an open question that allows the respondent to “have their say” if they feel they need to add something. However, often these questions go unanalyzed because the people setting the questionnaire do not know what to do with them. So there is an ethical issue here.

Design and Layout

• Give the questionnaire a title.
• Ensure that the procedure for completing the questions is clear (that means not too many responses modes).
• Ensure that respondents know how to get back the questionnaire and when.
• Leave reasonable space between questions (cramped questions look bad.)
• Leave space for you to code the responses.
• It may help to divide your questions into sections, possibly with headings for example, “About you.”, “about your school.” “About your science classes”.
• You may wish to write a brief covering letter. Do ensure that it is brief, that it makes clear why you are asking them to complete the questionnaire, what the purpose of your research is and why it is important. This can also include assurances of confidentiality.

Advantages of Questionnaire

1. The questionnaire has great potentialities when it is properly used. If it is eliminated, progress in many areas of education would be greatly handicapped.
2. It is economical way of accumulating information of significance for educators. It is economical in time, effort and cost both for the sender and for the respondent.
3. When the objects of the study are scattered far and wide, it will be a better tool as compared to the tools like interview or observation. It permits a nation-wide or even international coverage. It makes possible contact with many who could not otherwise be reached.
4. It permits group administration and is adaptable to any objectives. It can cover a large group at the same time.
5. It is easy to plan, construct, and administer.
6. Once it has been constructed skillfully, the investigator may ask anybody to administer it on his behalf.
7. It is generally regarded as dependable when used to obtain more readily by means of questionnaire, especially if the respondent is permitted to omit signatures or if specifically assured that his replies will be regarded as confidential.
8. It places less pressure on the subject for immediate response. He can answer it at leisure, whereas interview/observation demands specific fixation of time and situation.
9. It helps in focusing the respondent’s attention on all the significant items. As it is administered in a written form, its standardized instructions for recording responses ensure some uniformity. Questionnaire does not permit much of variation.
10. It may be used as a preliminary tool for conducting an in-depth a depth study later on by any other method.
11. In this method, the responses given by the subjects are available in their own language and version, whereas in tools like interview or observations, responses depend on the way the investigator has recorded them. The written record adds to the validity of responses.

Limitations of Questionnaire

1. Its reliability and validity is low. Its frequent use is a vice and weakness instigating against the   recognition of educational research as a science.
2. Frequently, questionnaire research constitute simply a pooling of ignorance. It is a compilation of the opinions of many persons who do not know the answer.
3. It gives a biased sample. The matter of non-response is always a big question mark.
4. The respondents who return the questionnaires may not constitute a representative section of the entire group. Only more responsible, research minded or those in favor of the issue may choose to respond. Some of the important sections of the group may totally choose to remain silent. This vitiates the final conclusions and findings.
5. If the subject misinterprets a question or gives an incomplete or indefinite response, nothing can be done. As against this, in an interview, there is always the possibility of rephrasing questions for further clarification. The questions can be repeated with adequate elaboration, if needed.
6. Since a questionnaire is more or less rigid in its structure, it is not very helpful in finding information about complex emotional subjects, or about sentiments which people may not like to put in writing. It is only through interview that the investigator can discuss delicate and controversial issues and can dig out the subject’s feelings.
7. Some respondents may not like to put their views on controversial issues in writing. Such views can be drawn out only through interviews.
8. The behaviours, gestures, reactions, emphasis, assertions, and emotions of the respondent remain unnoticed.
9. There are many people who would not like to share any important information unless and until they are impressed about the cause and the personality of the investigator. The questionnaire does not provide any opportunity for the investigator to establish rapport with the subject.
10. Some of the research areas are so delicate, sensitive, intricate, and confidential in nature that it becomes difficult to frame questions on them. It is impossible to put down certain delicate issues in writing.
11. It permits the respondent to modify his answers to earlier questions when he finds that he is contradicting himself while answering some later questions. Thus, his responses may not remain true, factual, honest, and original.
12. The questionnaire cannot be used with illiterate subjects and children.

OBSERVATION

    The observation method is followed when a researcher is primarily interested in the overt behaviour of people. Observation, as a fundamental technique of data collection, refers to watching the behaviour of and listening to other persons over time without manipulating and controlling it and record findings in ways that allow some degree of analytical interpretation and discussion. Thus observation involves broadly selecting, recording, and encoding behaviour for empirical aims of description or development of theory.

     In observation, there is a natural social context in which persons’’ behaviour is studied. Thus, observation usually occurs in natural settings although it can also be used in such contrived settings as laboratory experiments and simulations. It captures those significant events or occurrences that affect the relations among persons under study. It identifies important regularities and recurrences in social life by comparing and contrasting the data obtained in a particular study with those obtained in the study of various natural settings. In research methodology.

Characteristics of Observation

1.       Observation is specific and not haphazard looking around for general impression.

2.       Scientific observation of behaviour is systematic but not a chance dropping in on a situation.

3.       Observation is quantitative recording of the number of instances where in certain types of behaviour are noted.

4.       Observation is recorded immediately and notes are made promptly rather than trusting them to memory.

5.       Observation is expected to be done by someone trained to do such work.

6.       Observational results can be checked and substantiated to ascertain reliability and validity.

     Observation as a tool of data gathering device has certain purposes. The major purpose of observation is to capture and study human behaviour as it actually happens. It helps in snapshot comprehension of the activities of the persons in real life or social life. Another purpose of observation is exploration. When the investigator observes the human behaviour in real life setting, he gets a good chance to explore those explore those variables which are important but overlooked. He also develops a tendency to look beyond what is already known about the subject and to examine the probability of some alternative directions for research. Not only that, observation also aims at correcting some methodological errors which otherwise might have been overlooked.

Types of Observation

1. Systematic Observation: It is done according to some explicit procedures in accordance with the logic of scientific inference. A researcher studying with some objective the aggressive behaviour of children in their playgroup frames the principles and procedures beforehand. This is an example of systematics observation.
2. Unsystematic procedure: It is a type of casual observation made by investigator without specifying any explicit and objective inference. A researcher observing the behaviour of people on a railway platform without any explicit principles and procedures in an example of unsystematic observation.

    Observation can also be classified on the basis of the role played by the investigator. On the basis of this criterion, observation may be classified into participant observation and non-participant observation.

3. Participant Observation: In participant observation, the investigator actively participates in the activities of the group to be observed. Here the investigator may already be the member of a group or organization and decide to observe it under one or more situations. Or, he may join the group for the purpose of observing the group under one or more situations. The procedure of participant observation is often unstructured and usually, the identity of the observer is not known to other members of the group. This is called disguised participant observation. But sometimes the persons who are being observed know that the observer is present for collecting information about them. This is known as undisguised participant observation.
4. Non-participant Observation: Non-participation observation is the observation in which the investigator observes the behaviour of other persons in a natural setting but does not remain a participant in the activities being observed.  Non-participant observation is usually structured, and therefore, the observer pre-plans the likely nature of the natural setting, representativeness of data, problems associated with the presence of the investigator, etc. Here the observer or the investigator is able to go into the development of exploratory strategies or some specific research questions for probing.

     Since non-participant observation is usually structured, the obtained data are more reliable and representative. The observer clearly plans the different aspects and processes of observation in a nice way. The observer is able to concentrate upon any specified aspect of social behaviour in a better way and therefore, gets a better opportunity to find out the solution of the related people.

Interview (research)

       An interview in qualitative research is a conversation where questions are asked to elicit information. The interviewer is usually a professional or paid researcher, sometimes trained, who poses questions to the interviewee, in an alternating series of usually brief questions and answers. They can be contrasted with focus groups in which an interviewer questions a group of people and observes the resulting conversation between interviewees, or survey which are more anonymous and limit respondents to a range of predetermined answer choices. In phenomenological or ethnographic research, interviews are used to uncover the meanings of central themes in the life world of the subjects from their own point of view.

Characteristics of qualitative research interviews

·         Interviews are completed by the inter man based on what the interviewee says to be conformed and done.

·         Interviews are a far more personal form of research than questionnaires.

·         In the personal interview, the interviewer works directly with the interviewee.

·         Unlike with mail surveys, the interviewer has the opportunity to probe or ask follow up questions.

·         Interviews are generally easier for the interviewee, especially if what is sought are opinions and/or impressions.

·         Interviews are time consuming and resource intensive.

·         The interviewer is considered a part of the measurement instrument and has to be well trained in how to respond to any contingency.

·         Interviews provide an opportunity of face to face interaction between 2 persons; hence, they reduce conflicts.

Types

1.       Informal, Conversational interview

         No predetermined questions are asked, in order to remain as open and adaptable as possible to the interviewee's nature and priorities; during the interview the interviewer "goes with the flow".

2.       General interview guide approach

         Intended to ensure that the same general areas of information are collected from each interviewee; this provides more focus than the conversational approach, but still allows a degree of freedom and adaptability in getting the information from the interviewee.

3.       Standardized, open-ended interview

          The same open-ended questions are asked to all interviewees; this approach facilitates faster interviews that can be more easily analyzed and compared.

4.       Closed, fixed-response interview

        All interviewees are asked the same questions and asked to choose answers from among the same set of alternatives. This format is useful for those not practiced in interviewing. This type of interview is also referred to as structured.^[9]

Stages of interview investigation

·         Thematizing, the why and what of the investigation

·         Designing, plan the design of the study

·         Interviewing, conduct the interview based on a guide

·         Transcribing, prepare the interview material for analysis

·         Analyzing, decide on the purpose, the topic, the nature and methods of analysis that are appropriate

·         Verifying, ascertain the validity of the interview findings

·         Reporting, communicate findings of the study based on academic criteria

ADVANTAGE OF INTERVIEW

There are some objectives or advantage of interview which are stated below:

1.       Easy correction of speech: Any misunderstanding and mistake can be rectified easily in an interview. Because the interviewer and interviewee physically present before the interview board.

2.       Development of relationship: Relation between the interviewer and the interviewee can be developed through an interview. It increases mutual understanding and co-operation between the parties.

3.       Selection of suitable candidate: Suitable candidates can be selected through interview because the interview can know a lot about the candidate by this process.

4.       Collection of primary information: Interview can help to collect the fresh, new and primary information as needed.

5.       Sufficient information: Sufficient information can be collected through the interview process. Because the interviewer can ask any question to the interviewee.

6.       Time saving: Interview can help to save time to select the best suitable candidate. Within a very short time communication can be accomplished with the interview.

7.       Less costly: It is less costly than other process of communication. It is very simple, prompt and low cost method of communication.

8.       Increasing knowledge: Any interview increases the knowledge of both the interviewer and the interviewee. They can interchange their views and ideas.

9.       Explore cause behind the problem: In business, executives need to solve different types of problems. To explore or to find out the actual reasons behind the problem interview method can be used.

10.   In depth analysis: Through planed interviews detailed information can be collected which enables proper analysis of a problem. Abstract factors like attitudes, feelings, opinion etc. Can be successfully evaluated or analyzed through interviews.

11.   Solving labor problems: Labor unrest and other disputes are very common in the industries. Sometimes human resource managers use the interview as a means of reveling actual causes behind the labor deputes.

12.   Flexible: One of the major advantages of interview is feasible. That depends on the situation it can be framed differently.

DISADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEW

      There are some limitations of the interview process. It is not free from defects. The disadvantages of the interview are discussed below:

1.       Incomplete process: Suitable candidate cannot be selected by interview only. The written test is more important than the interview.

2.        No record: In the case of the interview some confusion may be arisen in the future as, there is no evidence actually that have been discussed at interview.

3.       Lack of attention: Much attention is required for a good interview. But sometimes it is observed that both the interviewer and the interviewee are less attentive. That is why real information cannot be collected.

4.       Disappointed: Interviewee may be disappointed while she or he faces the interviewer’s questions which are not related to the field. That is why suitable candidate may be neglected.

5.       Time consuming: Time constrain is one of the major limitations of the interview process. Preparation for the interview, taking interviews and interpretation of the responses required much time, which makes the interview method time consuming.

6.       Biases of interviewer: Always there is a possibility that the interview process can be influenced by the biases of the interviewer.

7.       Costly: Generally interview method is expensive.

8.       Inefficiency of the interviewer: Interview is a systematic process of data collection. The success of an interview depends on the efficiency of the interviewer. This inefficiency of an interviewer can lead to misleading results.

9.       Not suitable for personal matters: Personal matters may not be revealed by interview method.

                                          RESEARCH PROPOSAL

       A research proposal is a document proposing a research project, generally in the sciences or academia, and generally constitutes a request for sponsorship of that research.Proposals are evaluated on the cost and potential impact of the proposed research, and on the soundness of the proposed plan for carrying it out. Research proposals generally address several key points.

       Research proposals may be solicited, meaning that they are submitted in response to a request with specified requirements, such as an request for proposal, or they may be unsolicited, meaning they are submitted without prior request. Other types of proposals include "preproposals", where a letter of intent or brief abstract is submitted for review prior to submission of a full proposal; continuation proposals, which re-iterate an original proposal and its funding requirements in order to ensure continued funding; and renewal proposals, which seek continued sponsorship of a project which would otherwise be terminated.

      Academic research proposals are generally written as part of the initial requirements of writing a thesis, research paper, or dissertation. They generally follow the same format as a research paper, with an introduction, a literature review, a discussion of research methodology and goals, and a conclusion. This basic structure may vary between projects and between fields, each of which may have its own requirements.

         A proposal is a written document to persuade the reader for a suggested plan of action. For example, a proposal may aim to attain a grant from the government to carry out a survey on communication practices on organizations.
              A written proposal is required whenever a study is undertaken. It offers assurance that the researcher understands the purpose of the study and proposed methods or investigation. Cost and time budgets are often outlined. Writing and submitting a research proposal can be an exasperating experience for even the most experienced researcher. For a beginner, it can be frustrating and discouraging and even turn him off a research project.

Characteristics of Proposals

1. Proposals are persuasive documents as these try to convince the reader of the suitability of a particular course of action.

2.      Proposals are generally written for an external audience though in some     

Cases they may be made for internal purposes, by one department for another or from an individual to the management.

       3. These may be solicited or unsolicited.

       4. They vary in length from a couple of pages to several pages.

       5. Proposals may be made by individuals or organizations for both individuals  

          and organizations.

Importance of Research Proposal

  The research proposal can serve many useful functions. The most important is that it helps to think out the research project the researcher is about to undertake and predict any difficulties that might arise. For those who are not quite sure what their focus will be, the research proposal can be a space to explore option-perhaps with one proposal for each potential topic.

     The preparation of a research proposal is an important step in the research process. After the research question and hypothesis have been formulated, one is ready to complete the tentative research plan. One needs to write out in detail what one proposes to do and just how one plans to do it. Research proposal forces one to set down ideas in a concrete form. Many initial ideas seem promising until one has to spell them out in black and white; then the difficulties or the inadequacies become obvious. This provides a basis for the evaluation of the project and gives the advisor a basis for assistance during the period of his or her direction. It also provides a systematic plan of procedure for the research to follow.

     The proposal is a blue-print that the architect prepares before the bids are made and construction begins. The initial draft proposal is subject to modification in the light of the analysis by the student and his or her project advisor. The written for can also be given to others for their comments and criticism.  It is easier to detect flaws and errors in a proposal when it is written than when it is communicated by word of mouth.

    The research at this stage is only a preliminary proposal and many changes will probably be needed before the final, formal proposal is written. It is important to keep in mind that, the more complete and detailed the initial proposal is, the more useful it would be to the researcher and more time will be saved later.

TYPES OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL

     On the basis of the type and purpose of the research study, research proposals can be broadly categorized into following three categories, which are not exclusive and may overlap:

1.       Research Proposal for Degree: This common type of proposal is prepared and presented by those researchers who are required to conduct a research study for the fulfillment of their Master’s Degree or Doctoral Degree in education. Most universities require the beginner researchers to submit the research proposal that is then evaluated by a committee of experienced experts. These experts determine the significance, utility, and feasibility of the proposed study and may suggest some modifications in the research proposal.

2.       Research Proposal for Financial Assistance: Many times conducting a particular research seems to go beyond the budget of the researcher for which he/she then submits the research proposal to a government or private agency requesting for financial assistance. Such an agency then asks empanelled experts for comments and/or recommendations after evaluating the proposal, and the agency then decides to provide(or not to provide) the financial assistance on the basis of these comments and /or recommendations.

3.       Research Proposal for Grants by Government: Since various research organizations such as universities, the UGC, the NCERT, and the ICSSR are earmarking more and more funds at present for a specific purpose of promoting research, more and more college and university teachers are becoming motivated to conduct research in their respective areas of concern at school, college, or university level. They are also required to submit their research proposal for evaluation and are provided grants if experts recommend so after evaluation of the research proposal.

Format/Content of Proposal

        The proposal may be in the format of a letter (mostly in the case of proposals being sent within organizations), or a form proposal (in which the form is supplied by the organization calling for proposals) or in a detailed report form.

    The following are the topics under which information may be provided while writing a proposal. Depending on the complexity and the length of the proposal, these eight topics can be combined or further subdivided to suit the needs.

(i) Objective statement: The opening statement should present the purpose/objective of the proposal, that is, what the presenter is proposing to do. It should be linked to the need of the receiver to gain acceptability. The problem/objective should be stated clearly.

     In the case of solicited proposals, it is important to link the objective statement with the topic for which proposals are invited. In the case of unsolicited proposals, the objective should be of interest to the organization where the proposal is being submitted and it should also catch the reader’s attention. This can be effectively done by summarizing the benefits of the proposal.

(ii) Background: Provide the reader with background information of the problem. This helps the reader to better understand the problem and see it in the right perspective. For example, a proposal of a research organization to a company for carrying out a survey on consumer behavior may be backed by information related to declining sales due to changing consumer needs.

(iii) Need: Need for what is being proposed is an offshoot of the background information. Based on the background information, the need is established so that the reader is clearly able to understand its advantages.

(iv) Procedure/Discussion of the plan: This is where you provide the details regarding how you will go about achieving the objectives listed out earlier. Give a step-by-step description of your plan of action, proposed schedule of the activities and an estimated budget. This is the heart of the proposal and needs to be written carefully, concisely and logically.

(v) Qualifications: Give the qualifications and experience of the persons who would be involved in the proposed project. This is given with a view to providing evidence of their ability to handle the project. Details of previous experiences of the organization/individuals in handling similar projects, the availability of facilities, equipment, expertise, and so on, provide credibility to the proposal.

(vi) Request for approval: To conclude the proposal you may briefly summarize it in a couple of lines followed by a direct request for approval. This may not appear as a separate heading but may take the form of a few lines at the end.                                                ·

(vii) Appendix: Any supporting information relevant to your proposal may be included as an appendix towards the end of the proposal.

Types of Proposals

      The Sponsored Programs Office can help you with any type of proposal, from new proposals (those being submitted to the sponsor for the first time) to renewals. Each type of proposal, outlined below, may have its own requirements or qualifications.

1. New Proposal—A proposal submitted to a sponsor for the first time, or a proposal being resubmitted after having been declined by a potential sponsor.

2. Revised Proposal—This modifies a proposal that is pending or is otherwise unfunded, but not official declined by the sponsor. If a proposal has been declined, a new proposal must be prepared.

3. Supplemental Proposal—A supplemental asks for an increase in support for a proposal that has already been funded. The requested increase would occur in the current budget period and may involve a broadening of the project's approved scope. Since additional funding is requested, a new budget is required.

4. Continuation Proposal—A continuation applies to a multi-year award. The continuation proposal requests the already approved funds for the next phase (or next year) of the project. Typically, sponsors require a progress report and budget before releasing additional funds. These proposals only apply to project and budget years that were approved by the sponsor in the original award.

5. Pre-proposal/Notice of Intent—The purpose of the pre-proposal is to peak the interest of a potential sponsor. It typically does not include a cost estimate and is not expected to result in an award. Interested sponsors will ask for a full proposal. See the transmittal sheet (PDF) for detailed information and the required form.

PREPARATION OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL

    The systematic procedure for preparation of a research proposals described in the following sections.

1. The statement of the problem:

       This is often a declarative statement in a question form. It attempts to focus on a stated goal and gives direction to the research process.it must be limited enough in scope to make a definite conclusion possible. The major statement may be followed by minor statements. The statement of the problem simply means that the research either knows nothing about a given phenomenon or there is some controversy or difference of opinion about the phenomenon.

     The problem usually implies that a controversy or difference of opinion exists. Problems can be derived from theory, prior research results, or a significant concern (e.g., a rate of female illiteracy among adults that is unacceptable in modern society.) and an insufficient knowledge base regarding what to do about the concern. Examples of problem statements are as follows.

1.       Participation in high school competitive athletics may conflict with optimal academic performance.

2.       Racial segregation may have a damaging effect upon the self-image of minority group children.

3.       What is the relationship between maternal depression and child’s behaviour?

4.       What is the relationship of social support with prenatal care and health behaviours of low-income women?

5.       Knowledge of participation in an experiment may have a stimulating effect upon the reading achievement of participants.

     These problem statements involve more than information gathering. They suggest hypotheses and provide a focus for research activity.

2. The Significance of the Problem:

        It is important for the researcher to point out how the solution to the problem or the answer to the question can influence educational theory or practice. The researcher must demonstrate why it is worth the time, effort, and expense required to carry out the proposed research. Careful formulation and presentation of the implications or possible applications of knowledge help to give the project an urgency, justifying its worth.

       Failure to include this step in the proposal may well leave the researcher with a problem without significance- a search for data of little ultimate values. Many of the tabulating or ‘social bookkeeping’ research problems should be abandoned if they do not pass the critical test of significance. With so many gaps in educational theory and so many areas of education practice in need of analysis, there is little justification for the expenditure of research effort on trivial or superficial investigations.

3. Definitions, Assumptions, Limitations and Delimitations:

        The researcher must define all the unusual terms that others could misinterpret. The Operational Definitions of the variables should be given in the research proposal. These definitions establish and explain the frame of reference with which the problem is being viewed and approached. The variables to be considered should be defined in operational terms. Such expressions as academic achievement and intelligence are useful concepts, but they cannot be used as criteria unless they are defined as observable samples or behaviour. Academic grades assigned by teacher or scores on standardized achievement tests are operational definitions of achievement. A Score on a standardized intelligence test is an operational definition of intelligence.

        Assumptions are those statements which are assumed toi be facts but cannot be verified without testing. The researcher should give sufficient details and bases of these assumptions in his/her research proposal.

      Limitations are those uncontrollable conditions which restrict the conclusions of the study and their apopliation and generalization to other situations. These limitations, such as inability to select the sample randomly or inability to use validated test for data collection, should be properly reported in the research proposal.

    Delimitations are the limits or boundaries of the study. A project may focus on the achievement motivation in relation to the socio-economic status of the 10^th grade students. Here conclusion cannot be extended beyond this studied population. Sufficient space should be given to these various delimitations also in the research proposal.

4. Review of Related Literature:

           A critical summary of research on a topic of interest is generally prepared to put a research problem in context or to identify gaps and weaknesses in prior studies so as to justify a new investigation. A summary of the writings of recognized authorities and of previous research provides evidence that the researcher is familiar with what is already known and what is still unknown an untested. This step helps to eliminate the duplication what has been done and provides useful hypotheses and helpful suggestions for significant investigation.

        The important elements that the researcher should note while searching related literature include;

Ø  Reports of studies of closely related problems that have been investigated.

Ø  Design of the study, including procedures employed and data gathering instruments used.

Ø  Populations that were sampled and sampling methods employed.

Ø  Variables that were defined.

Ø  Extraneous variables that could have affected the findings.

Ø  Faults that could have been avoided.

Ø  Recommendations for further research.

              The review of literature has certain advantages:

1. This indicates that the researcher has done a lot of hard work in choosing this problem and he/she is aware with what has already been researched and also with what is to be researched.
2. It eliminates the risk and chances of duplication of the already researched work.
3. It also helps the researcher in formulating the hypothesis on the basis of what is already known about that particular problem.

5. The Hypothesis:  

       The hypothesis is a tentative solution to the problem which is tested on the basis of the analysis of the collected data. In the research proposal the researcher should specify one major hypothesis and several minor hypotheses as the case and need may be. Hypothesis is not just guesswork; rather, it depends on logic and previous knowledge. This gives direction to the data gathering and research process. While formulating hypothesis the researcher must use the simplest possible terms and language and be consistent with previously known facts and/or theories. It should be stated in such a way that it can be tested and found to be either probably true or probably false.

        It should be noted that a hypothesis is just a tentative solution to the problem, which can be found false even after testing. If the researcher is about to reject the hypothesis he must report the findings objectively instead of playing with the data to mould it as per the hypothesis. So, testing a hypothesis is simply a research process or statistical process of verification or disconfirmation. Also, it is equally important that the researcher should formulate the hypothesis before the data are actually gathered. This will lead to scientific and unbiased investigation of the research problem.

      A good hypothesis has several basic characteristics:

·         It should be reasonable.

·         It should be consistent with known facts or theories.

·         It should be stated in such a way that it can be tested and found to be probably true or probably false.

·         It should be stated in the simplest possible terms.

     It is important that the hypothesis be formulated before the data are gathered. This is necessary for an unbiased investigation. It is not inappropriate to formulate additional hypotheses after data is collected, but they should be tested on the basis of new data, not on the old data that suggested them.

6. Method: 

It usually consists of three parts: Subjects, Procedure and Data Analysis. 

        a)      Subjects: This section deals with the population from which the researcher plans to select the sample. Variables that are frequently included, depending on the type of project proposed, include: chronological age, grade level, socioeconomic status, sex, race, IQ (if other than average), academic achievement level, and other pertinent attributes of the targeted population. The number of subjects desired from the population and how they will be selected are also indicated in the section. The reader should be able to understand exactly from where and how the subjects are to be selected.

          b)      Procedure: In this section, the researcher outlines the research plan. He describes the complete future plans of the research study in detail. It describes, what will be done, how it will be done, what data will be needed, and what data gathering devices will be used.

       c)       Data analysis: The method of analyzing the data is described in detail in the third part of the methods section. There are two types of data: qualitative and quantitative. Both the types of data are to be analyzed differently. Mostly there are different types of statistical techniques to analyze these two different types of data. What particular statistical technique is to be used, and how the data are to be analyzed, depend on our particular study. If the data are to be processed through the computer this should also be explained in the research proposal. The researcher clearly describes the complete data-analysis procedures in the research proposal so that the readers may get a clear idea of the research plan.

7. Time Schedule:  Although this step may not be required by the study advisor, a time schedule should be prepared so that the researcher may budget his or her time and energy effectively. Dividing the project into manageable parts and assigning dates for their completion will help to systematize the study and minimize the natural tendency to procrastinate. Some phases of th project cannot be started until other phases have been completed.

Example of a Time Table

Phase	Assignment	Approximate time required
I	Preparatory work (including the selection and appointment of research assistants and training, if required)	1 month
II	Pilot work, if any	1 month
III	Selection of sample and tools (including the pre-testing and printing of the tools)	2 month
IV	Tool construction, if required	2 month
V	Collection of data	4 month
VI	Processing of data	3 month
VII	Analysis of data	3 month

  

8. Budget Schedule:

            1. Research Assistance Required:

            2. Travelling expenditure:

            3. Stationary and Printing:

            4. Tools or Equipment (expenditure should not exceed 5% of the total budget):

            5. Books, journals etc. (expenditure should not exceed 5% of the total budget):

            6. Contingency Expenses:

            7. Data Processing Expenses:

            8. Any other (Specify):

            9. Grand total (in figures): Rs.-__________

                                      In words: Rs. __________________________

9. References:

        All the references that were cited in the text should be listed. The research proposal should cite the material that has helped prepare it. In this case the researcher has to prepare and present a bibliography in which all the relevant references, whether cited or not, are included. It is recommendable to prepare this list alphabetically and according to the set pattern of writing the references.

10. Ethical considerations:

      In the research projects involving human subjects, ethical guidelines must be considered to protect the subjects. Particularly, medical and psychological experimentation using human subjects involves some element of risk, however minor, and raises questions about the ethics of the process.

ELEMENTS OF THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

1. Title
2. Abstract
3. Study problem
4. Relevance of the project
5. Literature Review
6. Specific Study Objectives
7. Research Methods

i). Study design.

ii). Subjects

  ----Inclusion Exclusion Criteria

   ---Sampling

  ---Recruitment plans

  ---Method of Assignment of Study Groups

iii). Data Collection

     ----Variables: Outcomes, Predictors, Confounders

   ----- Measures/Instruments

  ------Procedures

iv). Intervention

V). Statistical Considerations

     ----Sample size.

     ---Data analysis

8. Ethical considerations
9. Time Schedule
10. Budget Schedule.

Suggestions for preparation of an Effective research proposal

1. The research proposal should be written carefully. If not, it gives the clear message to the evaluators that the research study would be carried out carelessly. A format or a set of guidelines should be followed given by the institution or agency where the researcher is going to submit the proposal.

2. The statement of the problem should be prepared in a simple language and in such a way that it reflects the significance of the problem and its contribution to the field of knowledge.

3. It should be indicated that the field of investigation is not unfamiliar and bizarre and that he/she has gone through the recent trends and findings of the problem area thoroughly.

4. The statement of hypotheses should be in correct form clearly indicating the basis for these hypotheses.

5. Provide each and every detail of the proposal procedure.

6.  Sampling procedure should be described in a proper way, the tools that are used and their reliability and validity has to be described in detail.

7. Extraneous variables have to be identified that might have negative impact on the study and the method of control has to be indicated.

8. The statistical techniques to be used have to be indicated.

9. The budget estimate has to be presented in a proper manner with clear rationale of approximate expenditure on various heads.

10. In the bio-data, an impressive image of the researcher has to be presented and reflect his/her competence to take over and complete the project objectively and successfully. 

Reference Section: It includes bibliography and appendix.
Bibliography: It is the record of those sources and materials that have been used for the study. it provide detailed list of all the sources of material used throughout the project. If the number is large the researcher may divide the bibliography into various sections, one for book, one for periodical and journals etc.
Appendix:  All the relevant supporting materials that are important but not essential to understanding of report are presented in appendix. Eg. material developed for the study, test paper, data analysis sheet etc,.