TOOLS FOR COLLECTION OF DATA
ACHIEVEMENT TEST:
Achievement
tests are the most frequently used evaluation tools in the educational setting
belonging to the paper and pencil category.
The term achievement refers to the acquisition of all the behavioural
changes belonging to the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.
* It is an instrument designed
to measure relative accomplishment in the specified areas of learning.
*
Ebel defines” Achievement test is one designed to measure students group
of somebody of knowledge or is proficiency in certain skills.
*
Freeeman defines test of Educational achievement as “designed to measure
knowledge, understanding, and skills in a specified subject or group of
subject”.
Achievement tests measure an
individual’s present level of performance. Most tests used in schools are
achievement tests. They are particularly helpful in determining individual or
group status in academic learning. Achievement test scores are used in placing,
advancing, or retaining students’ at particular grade levels. They are used in
diagnosing strengths and weaknesses and as a basis for awarding prizes,
scholarships, or degrees.
Achievement tests scores are used in
evaluating the influences of study courses, teachers, teaching methods, and
other factors considered to be significant in educational practice. For using
achievement tests for evaluative purposes, it is important not to generalize
beyond the specific elements measured. For example, to identify effective
teaching exclusively with the limited products measured by the ordinary
achievement test would be to define effective teaching too narrowly. It is
essential that researchers recognize that the elements of a situation under appraisal
need to be evaluated on the basis of a number of criteria, not merely on a few
limited aspects.
Achievement test
is an important tool in school evaluation and has great significance in
measuring instructional progress and progress of the students in the subject
area.
Achievement test
means one’s learning attainment, accomplishments, proficiencies, etc. It is
directly related to the pupil’s growth and development in educational
situations.
Test should give
accurate picture of students’ knowledge and skills in the subject area or
domain being tested. Accurate achievement data are very important for planning
curriculum and instruction and for programme evaluation. Test scores that
overestimate or underestimate students’ actual knowledge and skills cannot
serve these important purposes.
Definition:
·
“Any test that measures the attainments and
accomplishments of an individual after a period of training or learning”.
-----N.M.Downie.
·
“A type of ability test that describes what a
person has learned to do”. ---Thorndike and Hagen.
·
“A systematic procedure for determining the
amount a student has learned through instructions”. ----Groulund
Objectives of
Achievement test:
1. Identify
and explain reasons for performing tests.
2. Understand
testing terminology to communicate clearly with students and colleagues.
3. Evaluate
a test’s validity and reliability.
4. Select
appropriate tests.
5. Select
appropriate tests.
6. Administer
test protocols properly and safely.
Functions of test:
- It provides basis for promotion to the next grade.
- To find out where each student stands in various academic areas.
- It helps in determination about the placement of the students in a particular section.
- To motivate the students before a new assignment has taken up.
- To know effectively the student is performing in theory as well as in clinical areas.
- To expose pupil’s difficulties which he teacher can help them to solve.
Characteristics of a good test:
Test preparation activities which promote
quality, long term learning are appropriate, even essential. Good test-taking
skills and appropriate content learning can reduce the likelihood that
extraneous factors will influence students’ test scores. The various
characteristics of a good test are,
- It can be tried out and selected on the basis of its difficulty level and discriminating power.
- Directly related to the educational objectives.
- It should possess description of measure behaviour in realistic and practical terms.
- Contains a sufficient number of test items for each measured behaviour, concerned with important and useful matter; comprehensive, brief, precise and clear.
- It should be divided into different know.ledge and skills according to behaviour to be measures.
- Standardized the items and made instructions clear so that different users can utilize it.
- Rules and norms have to be developed so that various age groups can use at various levels.
- It provides equivalent and comparable forms of the test.
- A test manual has to be prepared, which can act as a guide for administering and scoring.
Advantages of Standardized testing:
- A practical
solution: First off most of
the standardized test are in multiple choice format. In other words they
are not complicated enough to explain and any student-no matter what
level-can understand that they have to tick one of the boxes as their
answer. Also given that tests are easy to implement. They save a lot of
time too. Not a lot of time is wasted on giving explanations for why
certain sections should be done like this and so. The instructions are
fairly simple. Chose the answer to the question based on the suggestions
below
- Results are
quantifiable: When
educators are able to quantify the achievement of students they are able
to identify proficiency levels. As such they can easily identify the
students who need remediation or advancement.
- Scoring
automation: With so many students at different grade levels taking
the exam, it’s difficult for educators to get through them all. Now, that
problem has been simplified through computerized testing- and even
scoring.
- Not biased:
Since a computer handles the grading and all there is no possible
influence of a teacher on the exams in the part a teacher can make up
their mind about a student’s skills based solely on their biased towards
the child. But with computers, those powers are stripped from them and
students can now be judged on what they have put on paper- not extreme
factors involved.
- Allows for
comparison: Educators can compare the results of examinations
within the school or even compare it to other schools. Through this, teacher can assess which
areas they need to improve on for the students. For example, students from
their school may have scored lower in mathematics compared to a rival
school. From there, teachers can focus on improving the mathematics
curriculum so students will score better next time.
- Traces student
progress: Standardized tests are taken at certain levels and over
that time, educators can see the progress students have made. They either
go into decline or improve tremendously. But whichever the case teachers now have an idea how best
they would respond to a child’s educational needs.
Disadvantages of Standardized testing:
- Questions are
general in nature: Tests do not really assess skill as the
questions have to be generalized for the entire population in short, the
test items are not in conjunction with classroom skills and behaviour.
What standardized tests do is assess the general knowledge and
understanding of students rather than their actual ability.
- Questions are
sometimes ridiculous: Sometimes the questions asked in the test
may be ridiculous not able to comprehend.
- Results doesn’t
allow educators to update their instruction methods: The questions
on the test are general in nature and it’s hard for teachers to know how
to improve students understanding of a particular topic based on general
information alone. What this does though is allowing teachers to teach to
the test rather than educate students properly based on the needs of the
classroom.
- Scores are
influenced by external factors like fatigue: Students study hard for these exams.
They study so hard that there are even instructions on what teachers
should do if a student vomits on their test booklets. Students feel
pressured taking these exams and sometimes their final scores are
reflective not of their ability but of being influenced by other factors
instead.
DIAGNOSTIC TEST IN EDUCATION
The purpose of a diagnostic test in
education is to assess the current state of a student's progress or ability in
a particular area. Some
diagnostic tests determine if a student qualifies for special education
services on the basis of everything from dyslexia to speech delays or even
attention deficit disorder while others indicate specific competencies on the
scope and sequence for a course in which students have either demonstrated
mastery or need remediation.
Diagnostic tests measure students' understanding of a subject area
or skills base. Teachers typically administer diagnostics for reading and math
skills, using the results to provide remedial instruction or place students
within appropriately leveled classes. Many content teachers, though, give
formative assessments to gauge what knowledge students bring to class. Some schools
also diagnose concepts as a whole, aiming to reveal commonly held
misconceptions in specific subjects.
Diagnostic test
is a test used to diagnose or to reveal an individual’s weakness and strengths
in a certain area of study. Diagnostic tests are designed to analyse the
individual performance and provide information on the causes of difficulty.
The term diagnose
is borrowed from the medical profession where it implies identification of
disease by means of patients symptoms. Here the patient is extensively observed
under controlled conditions. The word diagnosis is used more or less in the
same sense in the field of education. Only difference is that in medical
diagnoses it is a physical breakdown i.e. investigated, while in individual
diagnosis it is the failure of the process of education or learning i.e.
located and attempted to remedial, i.e. educational diagnosis is the
determination of the nature of learning difficulties and deficiencies, but it
can’t stop only at the identification of weakness in learning but has to go a
little deeper to locate their causes and also suggest remedies to get rid of
them.
A diagnostic test
is a test designed to locate specific learning deficiencies in case of
‘specific individuals’ at a specific stage of learning so that ‘specific
efforts’ could be made to overcome those deficiencies. It helps the teacher in
identifying the status of the learner at the end of a particular lesson, unit
or course o learning as to what ‘specific teaching or learning points’ have
been poorly grasped by the learner. In such deficiency is located in several
students, it becomes obvious to the teacher to reflect upon whether something
went wrong with his method of teaching. It is also possible that the entire
group of students suffering from that particular learning difficulty might not
have the basic knowledge required for benefiting from further learning. After
administering a diagnostic test or a battery of diagnostic tests to students, a
teacher takes a remedial measure to overcome the deficiencies thus discovered.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
AN EFFECTIVE DIAGNOSTIC TEST:
1.
It should be an integral part of the curriculum,
emphasizing and clarifying the important objectives.
2.
It s test items should require responses to be
made to situations approximating as closely as possible to be functional.
3.
It must be based on experimental evidence of
learning difficulties.
4.
It should reveal the mental processes of the
learner sufficiently to detect points of error.
5.
It should suggest or provide specific remedial
procedures for each error detected.
6.
It should be designed to cover a long sequence
of learning systematically.
7.
It should be designed to check forgetting by
constant review of difficult elements as well as to detect faulty learning.
8.
It should reveal pupil progress in objective
terms.
CONSTRUCTION
(PROCES) OF DIAGNOSTIC TESTS:
Diagnostic tests may also be
standardized but teacher made diagnostic tests will largely be more economical
and effective than standardized tests. The norms, which constitute a strong
point with standardized tests, are not called for in diagnosis, as the purpose
there is to discover the weakness of individual students rather than compare
their achievements. The preparation of diagnostic tests requires as special
technique different from other tests. Nevertheless, the stages of preparation
will be-planning, writing items, assembling tests, providing directions and
preparing the scoring key, marking scheme and reviewing the test. All forms of
questions can employed for testing different learning points. As we want to
collect evidences in all the points, it is desirable to use either short answer
or objective type question.
STEPS IN THE
CONSTRUCTION OF A DIAGNOSTIC TEST:
The steps involved in the construction of a diagnostic test
are as follows;-
1.
Identifying learning deficiencies.
2.
Analysing errors.
3.
Analysing content.
4.
Identifying learning points to be covered
emerging from above.
5.
Developing test formats and their try-out.
6.
Selecting items for inclusion in the test.
7.
Assembling the test.
No rigid time need be specified in the case
of diagnostic tests. Diagnosis should be individualized as much as possible and
every students should be allowed, as much time as reasonable needed. As we do
not have to relate content and processes, the preparation of blue-print may
altogether be avoided in case of diagnostic tests. Somewhere the number of
questions to be asked on different elements of the content may be noted.
Writing items for diagnostic tests is not
in any way different from writing items for general achievement test. The
questions have to be specifically related to the learning points should be
designed as to throw light on the weakness of students. The scope of answer of
the level of precision expected should also be made clear.
After the items of different learning points
are written and have to be assembled into a test form. The basis of arranging
questions in a diagnostic test is entirely different from that of other tests.
There appear to be a good deal of justification in favour of clubbing questions
around learning points. The learning points themselves can be arranged in order
of their complexity. It they are arranged sequencially, more over these
arrangements also help in analyzing the responses of students with a view to identify
their weakness; which is one of the important tasks in diagnostic tests.
Reading
Diagnostic
tests for reading provide specific information about reading skills. Children
take the test individually or in groups; some reading diagnostics are computer
based while others require interaction with a test proctor. Such tests are
designed to pinpoint at what grade level children are reading based on their
mastery of phonics, blending, word recognition and text comprehension. Ideally,
a child entering a grade should display reading skills typical of that grade,
meaning a fifth grader isn't using sound-out techniques like a first grader.
When teachers discover students are reading below grade level, they typically
implement interventions designed to bolster the missing skills.
Math
Diagnostic
testing in mathematics typically provides a level for the child's mathematical
skills -- in this case not just related to grade level but also math topic.
Schools often use such diagnostic testing to place students in appropriate math
classes, for instance, by determining if they have the prerequisite skills
necessary for a higher-level class such as calculus or trigonometry. However,
educators use math diagnostics to boost student achievement by encouraging high
achievers and offering remedial instruction, including summer school programs,
to those who are struggling.
Meaning: A diagnostic test has been defined as “one
designed to locate the particular source of a person’s difficulties in learning
especially in school subjects”.
Importance:
1. It provides the feed-back to the teacher as
well as to the students regarding their strength and weaknesses.
2. It helps teachers to modify their teaching
learning strategies. So as to make them more effective in the light of the
feedback.
3. Diagnostic test is an integral part of overall
evaluation.
4. Hypothesizing the
probable cause for these weakness and difficulties.
5. Applying the
remedial teaching for removing these weaknesses and difficulties.
Uses
of diagnostic test:
1. Diagnostic test
serves guides to the attainment of the students.
2. Diagnostic test
help in isolating difficulties of students individually.
3. Diagnostic test
help to group students for remedial or special coaching.
4. Diagnostic test
serve as guide to locate the attainments of difficulties of the students.
5. Point out
inadequacies in specific skills.
6. Locate areas in
which individual instruction is required.
7. Serve as a basis
for improving instructional methods, instructional materials and learning
procedures.
8. It is very helpful for identifying weakness of the students.
9. It is more scientific.
10. It is used for finding fit falls.
QUESTIONNAIRE/INVENTORIES
A questionnaire is a list of planned written questions related to a
particular topic or series of topics. Space is provided for the reply to each
question.
In Structured (closed-end) type of
questionnaire, the answers are checked are underlined by the respondent. In the
unstructured (open-end) type, the respondent is allowed to make free responses
to the questions. The inventory comes under the first type.
A questionnaire is used where factual
information from the respondents is desired. It consists of a form containing a
series of questions where the respondents themselves fill in the answers. Barr,
Davi and Johnson defines a questionnaire as, “A questionnaire is a systematic
computation of questions that are submitted to a sampling of population form
which information is desired.”
According to G.A.Langberg, “Fundamentally, the questionnaire is a set of
stimuli to which literate people are exposed in order to observe their verbal
behaviour under these stimuli”.
Good
and Hatt opine, “In general, the word questionnaire refers to a device
for securing answers to questions by using a form which the respondent fills-in
himself.
A questionnaire must be distinguished from
a “schedule”, an ”opinionnaire”, and an “interview-guide”. A Schedule consists
of a form containing a series of questions, which are asked and filled in by
the investigator in a face to face situation. An opinionnaire is an information
form which attempts to measure the attitude or belief of an individual. Hence,
opinionnaire is also called as an attitude scale. When factual information is
desired, a questionnaire is used but when opinions rather than facts are
desired opinionnaire or attitude scale is used. An interview-guide consists of
a list of basic points or topics to be covered by the interview during the
interview.
A questionnaire is usually administered
personally to groups of individuals. When several persons are available at the
same time and place, a questionnaire proves to be very economical tool of data
collection. A Questionnaire also enables researchers to get firsthand
information regarding the vagueness of items, if any, as well as it gives them
an opportunity to establish a warm relationship with the persons being tested.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD
QUESTIONNAIRE
A good
questionnaire must have certain characteristics. A questionnaire must be:
- Specific:
The questionnaire should be concerned with specific topics, which must be
regarded as relevant by the respondents. The investigator musts clearly
state the significance, objectives and aims of the questionnaire either
in a separate letter or in the questionnaire itself.
- Short:
It should be short because very lengthy questionnaires often find their
way into the waste-basket.
- Simple
and Clear: Directions and wordings of the questionnaire should be
simple and clear. Each question should deal with a single idea.
- Objective:
The questions should be objective and should not provide any hints or
suggestions regarding a possible answer. Embarrassing questions,
presuming questions and hypothetical questions should avoided.
- Presented
in a good order: The questions should be presented in a good
order proceeding from general to specific responses or from those showing
a favorable attitude to an unfavorable attitude.
- Attractive:
A questionnaire must be attractive in appearance, neatly printed or
duplicated and clearly arranged.
- Arranged properly: In a questionnaire, the order of the individual questions is of great importance because the order tends to influence the validity of the obtained answers as well as the refusal rates. In the beginning the respondent is unsure of himself as well as curious. So, the opening questions should be simple, general, and such as to put the respondent at ease. This has a natural effect of establishing rapport between the investigator and the respondent. No sensitive questions or embarrassing question should be put in the beginning because it is likely to lead to refusal to answer. The questions should move from the general to specific aspect in a logical manner. No break should be given in moving from general to specific questions.
Drafting the questions (Some rules)
- Keeping it brief means not having more than
15-20 questions.
- Overall research questions should guide in
selecting the questions.
- Don’t just ask questions simply out of general
interest.
- Keep the language simple and consider who will
be responding.
- Keep questions short with no embedded questions.
- Ensure that questions are clear and unambiguous.
- The researcher should ask questions that he
feels sure the respondents will be able to answer.
- Avoid asking leading questions.
- Make sure categories of response make sense.
Types of Questions
- Open type questions 2. Closed type
Question Order:
Start with easy questions first (e.g. Male/female) and make sure
that any questions that are more controversial appear later when the respondent
has already invested the time in the questionnaire. It is often useful to end
with an open question that allows the respondent to “have their say” if they
feel they need to add something. However, often these questions go unanalyzed
because the people setting the questionnaire do not know what to do with them.
So there is an ethical issue here.
Design and Layout
- Give the questionnaire a title.
- Ensure that the procedure for
completing the questions is clear (that means not too many responses
modes).
- Ensure that respondents know how to
get back the questionnaire and when.
- Leave reasonable space between
questions (cramped questions look bad.)
- Leave space for you to code the
responses.
- It may help to divide your questions
into sections, possibly with headings for example, “About you.”, “about
your school.” “About your science classes”.
- You may wish to write a brief covering
letter. Do ensure that it is brief, that it makes clear why you are asking
them to complete the questionnaire, what the purpose of your research is
and why it is important. This can also include assurances of
confidentiality.
Advantages of Questionnaire
- The questionnaire has great potentialities when
it is properly used. If it is eliminated, progress in many areas of
education would be greatly handicapped.
- It is economical way of accumulating information
of significance for educators. It is economical in time, effort and cost
both for the sender and for the respondent.
- When the objects of the study are scattered far
and wide, it will be a better tool as compared to the tools like
interview or observation. It permits a nation-wide or even international
coverage. It makes possible contact with many who could not otherwise be
reached.
- It permits group administration and is adaptable
to any objectives. It can cover a large group at the same time.
- It is easy to plan, construct, and administer.
- Once it has been constructed skillfully, the
investigator may ask anybody to administer it on his behalf.
- It is generally regarded as dependable when used
to obtain more readily by means of questionnaire, especially if the
respondent is permitted to omit signatures or if specifically assured
that his replies will be regarded as confidential.
- It places less pressure on the subject for
immediate response. He can answer it at leisure, whereas
interview/observation demands specific fixation of time and situation.
- It helps in focusing the respondent’s attention
on all the significant items. As it is administered in a written form,
its standardized instructions for recording responses ensure some
uniformity. Questionnaire does not permit much of variation.
- It may be used as a preliminary tool for
conducting an in-depth a depth study later on by any other method.
- In this method, the responses given by the
subjects are available in their own language and version, whereas in
tools like interview or observations, responses depend on the way the
investigator has recorded them. The written record adds to the validity
of responses.
Limitations of Questionnaire
- Its reliability and validity is low. Its frequent use is a
vice and weakness instigating against the
recognition of educational research as a science.
- Frequently, questionnaire research constitute simply a
pooling of ignorance. It is a compilation of the opinions of many persons
who do not know the answer.
- It gives a biased sample. The matter of non-response is
always a big question mark.
- The respondents who return the questionnaires may not
constitute a representative section of the entire group. Only more
responsible, research minded or those in favor of the issue may choose to
respond. Some of the important sections of the group may totally choose to
remain silent. This vitiates the final conclusions and findings.
- If the subject misinterprets a question or gives an
incomplete or indefinite response, nothing can be done. As against this,
in an interview, there is always the possibility of rephrasing questions
for further clarification. The questions can be repeated with adequate
elaboration, if needed.
- Since a questionnaire is more or less rigid in its
structure, it is not very helpful in finding information about complex
emotional subjects, or about sentiments which people may not like to put
in writing. It is only through interview that the investigator can discuss
delicate and controversial issues and can dig out the subject’s feelings.
- Some respondents may not like to put their views on
controversial issues in writing. Such views can be drawn out only through
interviews.
- The behaviours, gestures, reactions, emphasis, assertions,
and emotions of the respondent remain unnoticed.
- There are many people who would not like to share any
important information unless and until they are impressed about the cause
and the personality of the investigator. The questionnaire does not
provide any opportunity for the investigator to establish rapport with the
subject.
- Some of the research areas are so delicate, sensitive,
intricate, and confidential in nature that it becomes difficult to frame
questions on them. It is impossible to put down certain delicate issues in
writing.
- It permits the respondent to modify his answers to earlier
questions when he finds that he is contradicting himself while answering
some later questions. Thus, his responses may not remain true, factual,
honest, and original.
- The questionnaire cannot be used with illiterate subjects
and children.
OBSERVATION
The observation method is followed when a researcher is primarily
interested in the overt behaviour of people. Observation, as a fundamental
technique of data collection, refers to watching the behaviour of and listening
to other persons over time without manipulating and controlling it and record
findings in ways that allow some degree of analytical interpretation and
discussion. Thus observation involves broadly selecting, recording, and
encoding behaviour for empirical aims of description or development of theory.
In observation, there is a natural social context in which persons’’
behaviour is studied. Thus, observation usually occurs in natural settings
although it can also be used in such contrived settings as laboratory
experiments and simulations. It captures those significant events or
occurrences that affect the relations among persons under study. It identifies
important regularities and recurrences in social life by comparing and
contrasting the data obtained in a particular study with those obtained in the
study of various natural settings. In research methodology.
Characteristics of Observation
1. Observation
is specific and not haphazard looking around for general impression.
2. Scientific
observation of behaviour is systematic but not a chance dropping in on a
situation.
3. Observation
is quantitative recording of the number of instances where in certain types of
behaviour are noted.
4. Observation
is recorded immediately and notes are made promptly rather than trusting them
to memory.
5. Observation
is expected to be done by someone trained to do such work.
6. Observational
results can be checked and substantiated to ascertain reliability and validity.
Observation as a tool of data gathering
device has certain purposes. The major purpose of observation is to capture and
study human behaviour as it actually happens. It helps in snapshot
comprehension of the activities of the persons in real life or social life.
Another purpose of observation is exploration. When the investigator observes
the human behaviour in real life setting, he gets a good chance to explore
those explore those variables which are important but overlooked. He also
develops a tendency to look beyond what is already known about the subject and
to examine the probability of some alternative directions for research. Not
only that, observation also aims at correcting some methodological errors which
otherwise might have been overlooked.
Types of Observation
- Systematic
Observation: It is done according to some explicit procedures in
accordance with the logic of scientific inference. A researcher studying
with some objective the aggressive behaviour of children in their
playgroup frames the principles and procedures beforehand. This is an
example of systematics observation.
- Unsystematic
procedure: It is a type of casual observation made by investigator
without specifying any explicit and objective inference. A researcher
observing the behaviour of people on a railway platform without any
explicit principles and procedures in an example of unsystematic
observation.
Observation can also be classified on the basis of the role played by
the investigator. On the basis of this criterion, observation may be classified
into participant observation and non-participant observation.
- Participant
Observation: In participant observation, the investigator actively
participates in the activities of the group to be observed. Here the
investigator may already be the member of a group or organization and
decide to observe it under one or more situations. Or, he may join the
group for the purpose of observing the group under one or more situations.
The procedure of participant observation is often unstructured and
usually, the identity of the observer is not known to other members of the
group. This is called disguised participant observation. But sometimes the
persons who are being observed know that the observer is present for
collecting information about them. This is known as undisguised
participant observation.
- Non-participant
Observation: Non-participation observation is the observation in
which the investigator observes the behaviour of other persons in a
natural setting but does not remain a participant in the activities being
observed. Non-participant
observation is usually structured, and therefore, the observer pre-plans
the likely nature of the natural setting, representativeness of data,
problems associated with the presence of the investigator, etc. Here the
observer or the investigator is able to go into the development of
exploratory strategies or some specific research questions for probing.
Since non-participant observation is
usually structured, the obtained data are more reliable and representative. The
observer clearly plans the different aspects and processes of observation in a
nice way. The observer is able to concentrate upon any specified aspect of
social behaviour in a better way and therefore, gets a better opportunity to
find out the solution of the related people.
Characteristics of qualitative research interviews
Types
Stages of interview investigation
DISADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEW
Bibliography: It is the record of those sources and materials that have been used for the study. it provide detailed list of all the sources of material used throughout the project. If the number is large the researcher may divide the bibliography into various sections, one for book, one for periodical and journals etc.
Appendix: All the relevant supporting materials that are important but not essential to understanding of report are presented in appendix. Eg. material developed for the study, test paper, data analysis sheet etc,.
Interview (research)
An interview in qualitative research is a conversation where questions are asked to elicit information. The interviewer is usually a
professional or paid researcher, sometimes trained, who poses questions to the interviewee, in an alternating
series of usually brief questions and answers. They can be contrasted with focus
groups in which an interviewer questions a group of people and
observes the resulting conversation between interviewees, or survey which are
more anonymous and limit respondents to a range of predetermined answer
choices. In phenomenological or ethnographic research, interviews are used to
uncover the meanings of central themes in the life world of the subjects from
their own point of view.
Characteristics of qualitative research interviews
·
Interviews are completed by the inter man based on what the
interviewee says to be conformed and done.
·
Interviews are a far more personal form of research than
questionnaires.
·
In the personal interview, the interviewer works directly with the
interviewee.
·
Unlike with mail surveys, the interviewer has the opportunity to
probe or ask follow up questions.
·
Interviews are generally easier for the interviewee, especially if
what is sought are opinions and/or impressions.
·
Interviews are time consuming and resource intensive.
·
The interviewer is considered a part of the measurement instrument
and has to be well trained in how to respond to any contingency.
·
Interviews provide an opportunity of face to face interaction
between 2 persons; hence, they reduce conflicts.
Types
1.
Informal,
Conversational interview
No predetermined questions are asked, in order to remain as open
and adaptable as possible to the interviewee's nature and priorities; during
the interview the interviewer "goes with the flow".
2.
General
interview guide approach
Intended to ensure that the same general areas of information are
collected from each interviewee; this provides more focus than the
conversational approach, but still allows a degree of freedom and adaptability
in getting the information from the interviewee.
3.
Standardized,
open-ended interview
The same open-ended questions are
asked to all interviewees; this approach facilitates faster interviews that can
be more easily analyzed and compared.
4.
Closed,
fixed-response interview
All interviewees are asked the same
questions and asked to choose answers from among the same set of alternatives.
This format is useful for those not practiced in interviewing. This type of
interview is also referred to as structured.[9]
Stages of interview investigation
·
Thematizing, the why and what of the investigation
·
Designing, plan the design of the study
·
Interviewing, conduct the interview based on a guide
·
Transcribing, prepare the interview material for analysis
·
Analyzing, decide on the purpose, the topic, the nature and
methods of analysis that are appropriate
·
Verifying, ascertain the validity of the interview findings
·
Reporting, communicate findings of the study based on academic
criteria
ADVANTAGE OF
INTERVIEW
There are some objectives or advantage of interview
which are stated below:
1. Easy correction of speech: Any misunderstanding and
mistake can be rectified easily in an interview. Because the interviewer and
interviewee physically present before the interview board.
2. Development of relationship: Relation between the
interviewer and the interviewee can be developed through an interview. It
increases mutual understanding and co-operation between the parties.
3. Selection of suitable candidate: Suitable candidates can
be selected through interview because the interview can know a lot about the
candidate by this process.
4. Collection of primary information: Interview can help to
collect the fresh, new and primary information as needed.
5. Sufficient information: Sufficient information
can be collected through the interview process. Because the interviewer
can ask any question to the interviewee.
6. Time saving: Interview can help to
save time to select the best suitable candidate. Within a very short time
communication can be accomplished with the interview.
7. Less costly: It is less costly than
other process of communication. It is very simple, prompt and low cost method
of communication.
8. Increasing knowledge: Any interview increases
the knowledge of both the interviewer and the interviewee. They can interchange
their views and ideas.
9. Explore cause behind the problem: In business, executives
need to solve different types of problems. To explore or to find out the actual
reasons behind the problem interview method can be used.
10. In depth analysis: Through planed interviews
detailed information can be collected which enables proper analysis of a
problem. Abstract factors like attitudes, feelings, opinion etc. Can be
successfully evaluated or analyzed through interviews.
11. Solving labor problems: Labor unrest and other
disputes are very common in the industries. Sometimes human resource managers
use the interview as a means of reveling actual causes behind the labor
deputes.
12. Flexible: One of the major advantages of interview is
feasible. That depends on the situation it can be framed differently.
DISADVANTAGES OF INTERVIEW
There are some limitations of the
interview process. It is not free from defects. The disadvantages of the
interview are discussed below:
1. Incomplete process: Suitable candidate cannot be selected by interview
only. The written test is more important than the interview.
2. No record: In the case of the interview some confusion may be
arisen in the future as, there is no evidence actually that have been discussed
at interview.
3. Lack of attention: Much attention is
required for a good interview. But sometimes it is observed that both the
interviewer and the interviewee are less attentive. That is why real
information cannot be collected.
4. Disappointed: Interviewee may be
disappointed while she or he faces the interviewer’s questions which are not
related to the field. That is why suitable candidate may be neglected.
5. Time consuming: Time constrain is one of
the major limitations of the interview process. Preparation for the interview,
taking interviews and interpretation of the responses required much time, which
makes the interview method time consuming.
6. Biases of interviewer: Always there is a
possibility that the interview process can be influenced by the biases of the
interviewer.
7. Costly: Generally interview
method is expensive.
8. Inefficiency of the interviewer: Interview is a systematic process of data
collection. The success of an interview depends on the efficiency of the interviewer.
This inefficiency of an interviewer can lead to misleading results.
9. Not suitable for personal matters: Personal matters may not
be revealed by interview method.
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
A research proposal is
a document proposing a research project, generally in the sciences or academia, and generally constitutes a request for sponsorship of that research.Proposals are evaluated on the
cost and potential impact of the proposed research, and on the soundness of the
proposed plan for carrying it out. Research proposals generally
address several key points.
Research proposals may be solicited,
meaning that they are submitted in response to a request with specified
requirements, such as an request for
proposal, or they may be unsolicited, meaning they are
submitted without prior request. Other types of proposals include "preproposals",
where a letter of intent or
brief abstract is
submitted for review prior to submission of a full proposal; continuation
proposals, which re-iterate an original proposal and its funding requirements
in order to ensure continued funding; and renewal proposals, which seek
continued sponsorship of a project which would otherwise be terminated.
Academic research proposals are generally
written as part of the initial requirements of writing a thesis, research paper, or dissertation. They
generally follow the same format as a research paper, with an introduction,
a literature review,
a discussion of research methodology and goals, and a
conclusion. This basic structure may vary between projects and between fields,
each of which may have its own requirements.
A proposal is a written document to
persuade the reader for a suggested plan of action. For example, a proposal may
aim to attain a grant from the government to carry out a survey on communication practices on organizations.
A written proposal is required whenever a study is undertaken. It offers assurance that the researcher understands the purpose of the study and proposed methods or investigation. Cost and time budgets are often outlined. Writing and submitting a research proposal can be an exasperating experience for even the most experienced researcher. For a beginner, it can be frustrating and discouraging and even turn him off a research project.
A written proposal is required whenever a study is undertaken. It offers assurance that the researcher understands the purpose of the study and proposed methods or investigation. Cost and time budgets are often outlined. Writing and submitting a research proposal can be an exasperating experience for even the most experienced researcher. For a beginner, it can be frustrating and discouraging and even turn him off a research project.
Characteristics
of Proposals
- Proposals are persuasive documents
as these try to convince the reader of the suitability of a particular
course of action.
2.
Proposals
are generally written for an external audience though in some
Cases they may be made for internal purposes,
by one department for another or from an individual to the management.
3.
These may be solicited or unsolicited.
4.
They vary in length from a couple of pages to several pages.
5.
Proposals may be made by individuals or organizations for both individuals
and
organizations.
Importance of Research Proposal
The research proposal can serve many useful functions. The most
important is that it helps to think out the research project the researcher is
about to undertake and predict any difficulties that might arise. For those who
are not quite sure what their focus will be, the research proposal can be a
space to explore option-perhaps with one proposal for each potential topic.
The preparation of a research proposal is an important step in the
research process. After the research question and hypothesis have been
formulated, one is ready to complete the tentative research plan. One needs to
write out in detail what one proposes to do and just how one plans to do it.
Research proposal forces one to set down ideas in a concrete form. Many initial
ideas seem promising until one has to spell them out in black and white; then
the difficulties or the inadequacies become obvious. This provides a basis for
the evaluation of the project and gives the advisor a basis for assistance
during the period of his or her direction. It also provides a systematic plan
of procedure for the research to follow.
The proposal is a blue-print that the architect prepares before the bids
are made and construction begins. The initial draft proposal is subject to
modification in the light of the analysis by the student and his or her project
advisor. The written for can also be given to others for their comments and
criticism. It is easier to detect flaws
and errors in a proposal when it is written than when it is communicated by
word of mouth.
The research at this stage is only a preliminary proposal and many
changes will probably be needed before the final, formal proposal is written.
It is important to keep in mind that, the more complete and detailed the
initial proposal is, the more useful it would be to the researcher and more
time will be saved later.
TYPES OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL
On the basis of the type and purpose of the research study, research
proposals can be broadly categorized into following three categories, which are
not exclusive and may overlap:
1. Research Proposal for Degree:
This common type of proposal is prepared and presented by those researchers who
are required to conduct a research study for the fulfillment of their Master’s
Degree or Doctoral Degree in education. Most universities require the beginner
researchers to submit the research proposal that is then evaluated by a
committee of experienced experts. These experts determine the significance,
utility, and feasibility of the proposed study and may suggest some
modifications in the research proposal.
2. Research Proposal for Financial
Assistance: Many times conducting a particular research seems to go
beyond the budget of the researcher for which he/she then submits the research
proposal to a government or private agency requesting for financial assistance.
Such an agency then asks empanelled experts for comments and/or recommendations
after evaluating the proposal, and the agency then decides to provide(or not to
provide) the financial assistance on the basis of these comments and /or
recommendations.
3. Research Proposal for Grants by
Government: Since various research organizations such as universities,
the UGC, the NCERT, and the ICSSR are earmarking more and more funds at present
for a specific purpose of promoting research, more and more college and
university teachers are becoming motivated to conduct research in their
respective areas of concern at school, college, or university level. They are
also required to submit their research proposal for evaluation and are provided
grants if experts recommend so after evaluation of the research proposal.
Format/Content of Proposal
The proposal may be in the format of a
letter (mostly in the case of proposals being sent within organizations), or a
form proposal (in which the form is supplied by the organization calling for
proposals) or in a detailed report form.
The following are the topics under which information
may be provided while writing a proposal. Depending on the complexity and the
length of the proposal, these eight topics can be combined or further
subdivided to suit the needs.
(i) Objective statement: The opening
statement should present the purpose/objective of the proposal, that is, what
the presenter is proposing to do. It should be linked to the need of the
receiver to gain acceptability. The problem/objective should be stated clearly.
In the case of solicited proposals, it is
important to link the objective statement with the topic for which proposals
are invited. In the case of unsolicited proposals, the objective should be of
interest to the organization where the proposal is being submitted and it
should also catch the reader’s attention. This can be effectively done by
summarizing the benefits of the proposal.
(ii) Background: Provide the reader
with background information of the problem. This helps the reader to better
understand the problem and see it in the right perspective. For example, a
proposal of a research organization to a company for carrying out a survey on
consumer behavior may be backed by information related to declining sales due
to changing consumer needs.
(iii) Need: Need for what is
being proposed is an offshoot of the background information. Based on the
background information, the need is established so that the reader is clearly
able to understand its advantages.
(iv) Procedure/Discussion of the
plan: This is where you
provide the details regarding how you will go about achieving the objectives
listed out earlier. Give a step-by-step description of your plan of action,
proposed schedule of the activities and an estimated budget. This is the heart
of the proposal and needs to be written carefully, concisely and logically.
(v) Qualifications: Give the
qualifications and experience of the persons who would be involved in the
proposed project. This is given with a view to providing evidence of their
ability to handle the project. Details of previous experiences of the
organization/individuals in handling similar projects, the availability of
facilities, equipment, expertise, and so on, provide credibility to the
proposal.
(vi) Request for
approval: To conclude the
proposal you may briefly summarize it in a couple of lines followed by a direct
request for approval. This may not appear as a separate heading but may take
the form of a few lines at the
end.
·
(vii) Appendix: Any supporting
information relevant to your proposal may be included as an appendix towards
the end of the proposal.
Types of
Proposals
The Sponsored Programs Office can help
you with any type of proposal, from new proposals (those being submitted to the
sponsor for the first time) to renewals. Each type of proposal, outlined below,
may have its own requirements or qualifications.
1. New Proposal—A
proposal submitted to a sponsor for the first time, or a proposal being
resubmitted after having been declined by a potential sponsor.
2. Revised Proposal—This
modifies a proposal that is pending or is otherwise unfunded, but not official
declined by the sponsor. If a proposal has been declined, a new proposal must
be prepared.
3. Supplemental Proposal—A
supplemental asks for an increase in support for a proposal that has already
been funded. The requested increase would occur in the current budget period
and may involve a broadening of the project's approved scope. Since additional
funding is requested, a new budget is required.
4. Continuation Proposal—A
continuation applies to a multi-year award. The continuation proposal requests
the already approved funds for the next phase (or next year) of the project.
Typically, sponsors require a progress report and budget before releasing
additional funds. These proposals only apply to project and budget years that
were approved by the sponsor in the original award.
5. Pre-proposal/Notice of
Intent—The purpose of the pre-proposal is to peak the
interest of a potential sponsor. It typically does not include a cost estimate
and is not expected to result in an award. Interested sponsors will ask for a
full proposal. See the transmittal sheet (PDF) for detailed information and the
required form.
PREPARATION OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL
The systematic procedure for preparation of a research proposals
described in the following sections.
- The statement of the problem:
This is often a declarative statement in
a question form. It attempts to focus on a stated goal and gives direction to
the research process.it must be limited enough in scope to make a definite
conclusion possible. The major statement may be followed by minor statements.
The statement of the problem simply means that the research either knows
nothing about a given phenomenon or there is some controversy or difference of
opinion about the phenomenon.
The problem usually implies that a controversy or difference of opinion
exists. Problems can be derived from theory, prior research results, or a
significant concern (e.g., a rate of female illiteracy among adults that is
unacceptable in modern society.) and an insufficient knowledge base regarding
what to do about the concern. Examples of problem statements are as follows.
1. Participation
in high school competitive athletics may conflict with optimal academic
performance.
2. Racial
segregation may have a damaging effect upon the self-image of minority group
children.
3. What
is the relationship between maternal depression and child’s behaviour?
4. What
is the relationship of social support with prenatal care and health behaviours
of low-income women?
5. Knowledge
of participation in an experiment may have a stimulating effect upon the
reading achievement of participants.
These problem statements involve more than information gathering. They
suggest hypotheses and provide a focus for research activity.
- The Significance of the Problem:
It is important for the researcher to
point out how the solution to the problem or the answer to the question can
influence educational theory or practice. The researcher must demonstrate why
it is worth the time, effort, and expense required to carry out the proposed
research. Careful formulation and presentation of the implications or possible
applications of knowledge help to give the project an urgency, justifying its
worth.
Failure to include this step in the
proposal may well leave the researcher with a problem without significance- a
search for data of little ultimate values. Many of the tabulating or ‘social
bookkeeping’ research problems should be abandoned if they do not pass the
critical test of significance. With so many gaps in educational theory and so
many areas of education practice in need of analysis, there is little
justification for the expenditure of research effort on trivial or superficial
investigations.
- Definitions, Assumptions,
Limitations and Delimitations:
The researcher must define
all the unusual terms that others could misinterpret. The Operational
Definitions of the variables should be given in the research proposal. These
definitions establish and explain the frame of reference with which the problem
is being viewed and approached. The variables to be considered should be
defined in operational terms. Such expressions as academic achievement and
intelligence are useful concepts, but they cannot be used as criteria unless they
are defined as observable samples or behaviour. Academic grades assigned by
teacher or scores on standardized achievement tests are operational definitions
of achievement. A Score on a standardized intelligence test is an operational
definition of intelligence.
Assumptions are those statements which are assumed toi be
facts but cannot be verified without testing. The researcher should give
sufficient details and bases of these assumptions in his/her research proposal.
Limitations are those uncontrollable
conditions which restrict the conclusions of the study and their apopliation
and generalization to other situations. These limitations, such as inability to
select the sample randomly or inability to use validated test for data
collection, should be properly reported in the research proposal.
Delimitations are the limits or boundaries of the study.
A project may focus on the achievement motivation in relation to the
socio-economic status of the 10th grade students. Here conclusion
cannot be extended beyond this studied population. Sufficient space should be given to these various delimitations
also in the research proposal.
- Review of Related Literature:
A critical summary of research on a topic
of interest is generally prepared to put a research problem in context or to
identify gaps and weaknesses in prior studies so as to justify a new
investigation. A summary of the writings of recognized authorities and of
previous research provides evidence that the researcher is familiar with what
is already known and what is still unknown an untested. This step helps to
eliminate the duplication what has been done and provides useful hypotheses and
helpful suggestions for significant investigation.
The important elements that the researcher
should note while searching related literature include;
Ø
Reports of studies of closely related problems
that have been investigated.
Ø
Design of the study, including procedures
employed and data gathering instruments used.
Ø
Populations that were sampled and sampling
methods employed.
Ø
Variables that were defined.
Ø
Extraneous variables that could have affected
the findings.
Ø
Faults that could have been avoided.
Ø
Recommendations for further research.
The review of literature has
certain advantages:
- This indicates that the researcher has done a lot of hard work in choosing this problem and he/she is aware with what has already been researched and also with what is to be researched.
- It eliminates the risk and chances of duplication of the already researched work.
- It also helps the researcher in formulating the hypothesis on the basis of what is already known about that particular problem.
5. The Hypothesis:
The
hypothesis is a tentative solution to the problem which is tested on the basis of
the analysis of the collected data. In the research proposal the researcher
should specify one major hypothesis and several minor hypotheses as the case
and need may be. Hypothesis is not just guesswork; rather, it depends on logic
and previous knowledge. This gives direction to the data gathering and research
process. While formulating hypothesis the researcher must use the simplest
possible terms and language and be consistent with previously known facts
and/or theories. It should be stated in such a way that it can be tested and
found to be either probably true or probably false.
It should be noted that a hypothesis is just a tentative solution to the
problem, which can be found false even after testing. If the researcher is
about to reject the hypothesis he must report the findings objectively instead
of playing with the data to mould it as per the hypothesis. So, testing a
hypothesis is simply a research process or statistical process of verification
or disconfirmation. Also, it is equally important that the researcher should
formulate the hypothesis before the data are actually gathered. This will lead
to scientific and unbiased investigation of the research problem.
A good hypothesis has several basic characteristics:
·
It should be reasonable.
·
It should be consistent with known facts or
theories.
·
It should be stated in such a way that it can be
tested and found to be probably true or probably false.
·
It should be stated in the simplest possible
terms.
It is important that the hypothesis be
formulated before the data are gathered. This is necessary for an unbiased
investigation. It is not inappropriate to formulate additional hypotheses after
data is collected, but they should be tested on the basis of new data, not on
the old data that suggested them.
6. Method:
It usually consists of three parts:
Subjects, Procedure and Data Analysis.
a) Subjects: This section deals
with the population from which the researcher plans to select the sample.
Variables that are frequently included, depending on the type of project
proposed, include: chronological age, grade level, socioeconomic status, sex,
race, IQ (if other than average), academic achievement level, and other
pertinent attributes of the targeted population. The number of subjects desired
from the population and how they will be selected are also indicated in the
section. The reader should be able to understand exactly from where and how the
subjects are to be selected.
b)
Procedure:
In this section, the researcher outlines the research plan. He describes the
complete future plans of the research study in detail. It describes, what will
be done, how it will be done, what data will be needed, and what data gathering
devices will be used.
c)
Data
analysis: The method of analyzing the data is described in detail in
the third part of the methods section. There are two types of data: qualitative
and quantitative. Both the types of data are to be analyzed differently. Mostly
there are different types of statistical techniques to analyze these two different
types of data. What particular statistical technique is to be used, and how the
data are to be analyzed, depend on our particular study. If the data are to be
processed through the computer this should also be explained in the research
proposal. The researcher clearly describes the complete data-analysis
procedures in the research proposal so that the readers may get a clear idea of
the research plan.
7. Time Schedule: Although this step may not be required by
the study advisor, a time schedule should be prepared so that the researcher
may budget his or her time and energy effectively. Dividing the project into
manageable parts and assigning dates for their completion will help to
systematize the study and minimize the natural tendency to procrastinate. Some
phases of th project cannot be started until other phases have been completed.
Example
of a Time Table
Phase
|
Assignment
|
Approximate time required
|
I
|
Preparatory
work (including the selection and appointment of research assistants and
training, if required)
|
1 month
|
II
|
Pilot
work, if any
|
1 month
|
III
|
Selection
of sample and tools (including the pre-testing and printing of the tools)
|
2 month
|
IV
|
Tool
construction, if required
|
2 month
|
V
|
Collection
of data
|
4 month
|
VI
|
Processing
of data
|
3 month
|
VII
|
Analysis
of data
|
3 month
|
8. Budget Schedule:
1. Research Assistance Required:
2. Travelling expenditure:
3. Stationary and Printing:
4. Tools or Equipment (expenditure
should not exceed 5% of the total budget):
5. Books, journals etc. (expenditure
should not exceed 5% of the total budget):
6. Contingency Expenses:
7. Data Processing Expenses:
8. Any other (Specify):
9. Grand total (in figures):
Rs.-__________
In words:
Rs. __________________________
9. References:
All the references that were cited in the
text should be listed. The research proposal should cite the material that has
helped prepare it. In this case the researcher has to prepare and present a
bibliography in which all the relevant references, whether cited or not, are
included. It is recommendable to prepare this list alphabetically and according
to the set pattern of writing the references.
10. Ethical considerations:
In the research
projects involving human subjects, ethical guidelines must be considered to
protect the subjects. Particularly, medical and psychological experimentation
using human subjects involves some element of risk, however minor, and raises
questions about the ethics of the process.
ELEMENTS OF THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL
- Title
- Abstract
- Study problem
- Relevance of the project
- Literature Review
- Specific Study Objectives
- Research Methods
i). Study design.
ii). Subjects
----Inclusion Exclusion Criteria
---Sampling
---Recruitment plans
---Method of Assignment of Study Groups
iii). Data Collection
----Variables: Outcomes, Predictors, Confounders
----- Measures/Instruments
------Procedures
iv). Intervention
V). Statistical Considerations
----Sample size.
---Data analysis
- Ethical considerations
- Time Schedule
- Budget Schedule.
Suggestions for preparation of an Effective research proposal
1.
The research proposal should be written carefully. If not, it gives the clear
message to the evaluators that the research study would be carried out
carelessly. A format or a set of guidelines should be followed given by the
institution or agency where the researcher is going to submit the proposal.
2.
The statement of the problem should be prepared in a simple language and in
such a way that it reflects the significance of the problem and its
contribution to the field of knowledge.
3.
It should be indicated that the field of investigation is not unfamiliar and
bizarre and that he/she has gone through the recent trends and findings of the
problem area thoroughly.
4.
The statement of hypotheses should be in correct form clearly indicating the
basis for these hypotheses.
5.
Provide each and every detail of the proposal procedure.
6. Sampling procedure should be described in a
proper way, the tools that are used and their reliability and validity has to
be described in detail.
7.
Extraneous variables have to be identified that might have negative impact on
the study and the method of control has to be indicated.
8.
The statistical techniques to be used have to be indicated.
9.
The budget estimate has to be presented in a proper manner with clear rationale
of approximate expenditure on various heads.
10.
In the bio-data, an impressive image of the researcher has to be presented and
reflect his/her competence to take over and complete the project objectively
and successfully.
Reference Section: It includes bibliography and appendix.Bibliography: It is the record of those sources and materials that have been used for the study. it provide detailed list of all the sources of material used throughout the project. If the number is large the researcher may divide the bibliography into various sections, one for book, one for periodical and journals etc.
Appendix: All the relevant supporting materials that are important but not essential to understanding of report are presented in appendix. Eg. material developed for the study, test paper, data analysis sheet etc,.
This comment has been removed by a blog administrator.
ReplyDelete1xbet korean | bet-in-korean
ReplyDelete1xbet korean | หารายได้เสริม bet-in-korean. Sportsbook | 1xbet Sports Betting | 1xbet Sports Betting 1xbet | 1xbet Casino | worrione 1xbet
CASINOS of MOHEGAN - Casino News
ReplyDeleteCASINOS 대구광역 출장안마 OF MOHEGAN 정읍 출장안마 in the state of Ohio have 서귀포 출장마사지 been 대전광역 출장마사지 announced. There are now eight casinos, including 통영 출장마사지 the Hollywood Casino at Charles Town,